# Appendix

## Appendix 1: Ecoinvent processes <a href="#jfq1kp34xji7" id="jfq1kp34xji7"></a>

*Table A1 List of ecoinvent 3.11 processes used in the GHG quantification model*

<table data-full-width="true"><thead><tr><th width="180">Process type</th><th>Ecoinvent activity</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Transport, truck</td><td><ul><li>market for transport, freight, lorry, 7.5-16 metric ton, diesel, EURO 5 | Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>NiMH battery recycling</td><td><ul><li>treatment of used Ni-metal hydride battery, pyrometallurgical treatment l used Ni-metal hydride battery l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Li-ion battery recycling</td><td><ul><li>64%: treatment of used Li-ion battery, pyrometallurgical treatment l used Li-ion battery l Cutoff, U, GLO</li><li>36%: treatment of used Li-ion battery, hydrometallurgical treatment l used Li-ion battery l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-1">Pb-acid battery recycling</a></td><td><ul><li>treatment of scrap lead acid battery, remelting l lead l Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Common steps</td><td><ul><li>market for solvent, organic l solvent, organic l Cutoff, U, GLO</li><li><p><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-2">Baking soda solution</a></p><ul><li>10.7%: market for sodium bicarbonate l sodium bicarbonate | Cutoff, U, RER</li><li>89.3%: market for water, completely softened | water, completely softened | Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></li><li>market for textile, knit cotton | textile, knit cotton | Cutoff, U, GLO</li><li>market group for electricity, medium voltage l electricity, medium voltage l  Cutoff, U,<a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-3"> RER</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Refurbishing steps</td><td><ul><li><p><strong>New BU</strong>:</p><ul><li>NiMH:  BU-related processes from NiMH battery production</li><li><p>Li-ion:</p><ul><li>NMC811: battery cell production, Li-ion, NMC811 l battery cell, Li-ion, NMC811 l Cutoff, U, RoW</li><li>NMC111: battery cell production, Li-ion, NMC111 l battery cell, Li-ion, NMC811 l Cutoff, U, RoW</li><li>LFP: battery cell production, Li-ion, LFP l battery cell, Li-ion, LFP l Cutoff, U, RoW</li><li>NCA: battery cell production, Li-ion, NCA l battery cell, Li-ion, NCA l Cutoff, U, RoW</li></ul></li><li><p>Pb-acid: </p><ul><li>battery production, lead acid, rechargeable, stationary l battery, lead acid, rechargeable, stationary l Cutoff, U, RoW</li></ul></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>New BMS</strong>: </p><ul><li>battery management system production, for Li-ion battery l battery management system production, for Li-ion battery l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p><strong>New auxiliary components</strong>:</p><ul><li><p>Glass fiber reinforced plastics: </p><ul><li>market for glass fibre reinforced plastic, polyamide, injection moulded l glass fibre reinforced plastic, polyamide, injection moulded l  l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Plastics (polyethylene):</p><ul><li>market for polyethylene, high density, granulate l polyethylene, high density, granulate l Cutoff, U, RER</li><li>injection moulding l injection moulding l Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></li><li><p>Plastics (polypropylene):</p><ul><li>market for polypropylene, granulate l polypropylene granulate l Cutoff, U, RER</li><li>injection moulding l injection moulding l Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></li><li><p>Battery module packaging: </p><ul><li>market for battery module packaging, Li-ion l battery module packaging, Li-ion l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Aluminium:</p><ul><li>market for aluminium, cast alloy l aluminium, cast alloy l Cutoff, U, GLO</li><li>market for sheet rolling, aluminium l sheet rolling, aluminium l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Steel:</p><ul><li>market for steel, low-alloyed, hot rolled l steel, low-alloyed, hot rolled l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Electric connectors (wire):</p><ul><li>market for electric connector, wire clamp l electric connector, wire clamp l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Electric connectors (buss):</p><ul><li>market for electric connector, peripheral type buss l electric connector, peripheral type buss l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Electronic components (other)</p><ul><li>market for electronic component, passive, unspecified l electronic component, passive, unspecified l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Regeneration steps</td><td><ul><li><p>New electrolyte:</p><ul><li>Li-ion: electrolyte production, for Li-ion battery l electrolyte, for Li-ion battery l Cutoff, U, GLO</li><li><p>Pb-acid: </p><ul><li>38%: market for sulfuric acid production l sulphuric acid l Cutoff, U, RER</li><li>62%: market for water, completely softened | water, completely softened | Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></li><li>NiMH: market for electrolyte, KOH, LiOH additive l electrolyte, KOH, LiOH additive l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p>Pb-acid electrolyte treatment:</p><ul><li>market for quicklime, milled, packed l quicklime, milled, packed l Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>Residual waste</td><td><ul><li>Incineration (50%): treatment of hazardous waste, hazardous waste incineration l hazardous waste for incineration l Cutoff, U, Europe without Switzerland</li><li>Landfill (50%): treatment of inert waste, sanitary landfill l inert waste l Cutoff, U, RER</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>New battery production</td><td><ul><li><p><strong>NiMH</strong>: </p><ul><li>battery production, NiMH, rechargeable l battery, NiMH, rechargeable l Cutoff, U, GLO</li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Li-ion</strong>: </p><ul><li><p>60% - NMC:</p><ul><li>50%: NMC811: battery production, Li-ion, NMC811 l battery, Li-ion, NMC811, rechargeable l Cutoff, U, RoW</li><li>50%: NMC111: battery production, Li-ion, NMC111 l battery, Li-ion, NMC111, rechargeable l Cutoff, U, RoW</li></ul></li><li>30%: battery production, Li-ion, LFP, rechargeable l battery, Li-ion, LFP, rechargeable l  Cutoff, U, GLO</li><li>10%: battery production, Li-ion, NCA, rechargeable l battery, Li-ion, NCA, rechargeable l Cutoff, U, RoW</li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Pb-acid</strong>: </p><ul><li>battery production, lead acid, rechargeable, stationary l battery, lead acid, rechargeable, stationary l Cutoff, U, RoW</li></ul></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table>

## Appendix 2:  Lifetimes of new and refurbished batteries&#x20;

Table A2 Summary of assumed lifetimes, of new and refurbished batteries by [battery type and chemistry](#user-content-fn-4)[^4].

<table data-full-width="true"><thead><tr><th>Battery type</th><th>Battery chemistry</th><th>BU% mass in battery pack</th><th width="167">Lifetime new (years)</th><th>Lifetime second life (years)</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>LMT</td><td>Li-ion</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-5">70%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-6">6</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-7">5</a></td></tr><tr><td>LMT</td><td>NiMH</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-8">74%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-9">6</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-10">5</a></td></tr><tr><td>EV/HEV</td><td>Li-ion</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-11">83%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-12">8</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-13">5</a></td></tr><tr><td>EV/HEV</td><td>NiMH</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-14">74%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-15">8</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-10">5</a></td></tr><tr><td>SLI</td><td>Pb-acid</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-16">100%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-15">8</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-7">6</a></td></tr><tr><td>ESS</td><td>Li-ion</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-17">70</a><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-18">%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-15">8</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-7">6</a></td></tr><tr><td>ESS</td><td>NiMH</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-14">74%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-15">8</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-7">6</a></td></tr><tr><td>ESS</td><td>Pb-acid</td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-16">100%</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-15">8</a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-7">6</a></td></tr></tbody></table>

## Appendix 3:  Detailed baseline scenario market shares&#x20;

Table A3 Summary of baseline scenario battery waste treatment, per battery type and chemistry.

<table data-header-hidden data-full-width="true"><thead><tr><th width="121"></th><th width="195"></th><th width="120"></th><th width="222"></th><th></th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td><strong>Battery type</strong></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-19"><strong>Chemistry</strong></a></td><td><strong>EU EPR collection target in 2028</strong></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-20"><strong>Europe EOL  market share</strong> </a></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-21"><strong>Adjusted</strong> <strong>Europe EOL</strong>  </a></td></tr><tr><td>LMT </td><td><p>Li-ion:</p><ul><li><p>NMC: 60%</p><ul><li>50% NMC811</li><li>50% NMC111</li></ul></li><li>LFP: 30%</li><li>NCA: 10%</li></ul><p>NiMH</p></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-22">51%</a></td><td><p><strong>PRO collection schemes</strong>:</p><ul><li>Battery second life: 10%</li><li>Recycling: 90%</li></ul></td><td><p><strong>PRO collection schemes</strong>:</p><ul><li>Battery second life: 7%</li><li>Recycling: 93%</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>LMT </td><td><p>Li-ion:</p><ul><li>NMC: 60%</li><li>LFP: 30%</li><li>NCA: 10%</li></ul><p>NiMH</p></td><td><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-23">49%</a></td><td><p><strong>Outside PRO schemes</strong>:</p><ul><li>Battery second life: 19%</li><li>Recycling: 75%</li><li><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-24">Landfill and incineration: 6%</a></li></ul></td><td><p><strong>Outside PRO schemes:</strong></p><ul><li>Battery second life: 13.3%</li><li>Recycling: 80.7%</li><li><a data-footnote-ref href="#user-content-fn-24">Landfill and incineration: 6</a>%</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>EV/HEV</td><td><p>Li-ion</p><p>NiMH</p></td><td>100%</td><td><p>Battery second life: 25%</p><p>Recycling: 75%</p></td><td><ul><li>Battery second life: 17.5%</li><li>Recycling: 82.5%</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td>SLI</td><td>Pb-acid</td><td>100%</td><td>Recycling: 100%</td><td>Recycling: 100%</td></tr><tr><td>ESS</td><td><p>Li-ion</p><p>Pb-acid</p><p>Li-ion</p></td><td>100%</td><td>Recycling: 100%</td><td>Recycling: 100%</td></tr></tbody></table>

[^1]: Considers:&#x20;

    * lead recovery efficiency of 98.8%. ***Source***: Quirijnen L. (1999) How to implement efficient local lead-acid battery recycling. In: Journal of Power Sources, 78(1-2), pp. 267-269.
    * an average of 0.61 g of lead in 1 kg of battery. ***Source***: Díaz-Ramírez, M.C., Ferreira, V.J., García-Armingol, T., López-Sabirón, A.M. and Ferreira, G. (2020). Environmental Assessment of Electrochemical Energy Storage Device Manufacturing to Identify Drivers for Attaining Goals of Sustainable Materials 4.0. *Sustainability*, 12(1), p.342. doi:<https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010342>.

      ‌

    <br>

[^2]: Percentages by weight based on Braga, B. (2020). *How to Recondition a Car Battery*. \[online] Jdpower.com. Available at: <https://www.jdpower.com/cars/shopping-guides/how-to-recondition-a-car-battery> \[Accessed 19 Nov. 2024].

[^3]: Geography may change depending on the the country where the project is located. &#x20;

[^4]: Classification of battery chemistry per battery type was based on Huisman, J., Bobba, S., “Available for Collection” study on alternative collection targets for waste portable and light means of transport batteries, EUR 30746 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2021, ISBN 978-92-76-39084-8, doi:10.2760/64633, JRC125615.&#x20;

[^5]: Nigel (2022). Cell to Pack Mass Ratio. \[online] Battery Design. Available at: <https://www.batterydesign.net/cell-to-pack-mass-ratio/>.

[^6]: &#x20;Based on a medium usage scenario from Huisman, J., Bobba, S., “Available for Collection” study on alternative collection targets for waste portable and light means of transport batteries, EUR 30746 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2021, ISBN 978-92-76-39084-8, doi:10.2760/64633, JRC125615.&#x20;

[^7]: &#x20;Based on research supported by industry experts.

[^8]: &#x20;Wang, S. and Yu, J. (2020). Life-Cycle Assessment on Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery in Hybrid Vehicles: Comparison between Regenerated and New Battery. Investigationes Linguisticae, (43), pp.57–79. doi:<https://doi.org/10.14746/il.2019.43.5>.

[^9]: Assumed the same lifetime of a LMT Li-ion battery due to lack of data

[^10]: Assumed the same lifespan of a second life LMT Li-ion battery due to lack of data

[^11]: &#x20;Majeau-Bettez, G., Hawkins, T.R. and Strømman, A.H. (2011). Life Cycle Environmental Assessment of Lithium-Ion and Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries for Plug-In Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(12), pp.5454–5454. doi:<https://doi.org/10.1021/es2015082>.

    <br>

[^12]: Casals, L.C., Amante García, B. and Canal, C. (2019). Second life batteries lifespan: Rest of useful life and environmental analysis. Journal of Environmental Management, 232, pp.354–363. doi:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.11.046>.

[^13]: &#x20;Koroma, M.S., Costa, D., Philippot, M., Cardellini, G., Hosen, M.S., Coosemans, T. and Messagie, M. (2022). Life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles: Implications of future electricity mix and different battery end-of-life management. Science of The Total Environment, 831, p.154859. doi:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154859>.

    <br>

[^14]: &#x20;Assumed the same as NiMH LMT due to lack of data

[^15]: Assumed the same lifetime of a EV/HEV Li-ion battery due to lack of data

[^16]: Lead-acid batteries are individual units containing layers of lead alloy plates immersed in an electrolyte solution, made of sulphuric acid $$H\_2SO\_4$$  and water. Thus, here, considered a battery unit. See assumptions section for more details.

[^17]:

[^18]: Assumed the same as LMT due to lack of data.

[^19]: &#x20;There may still be some batteries based on Pl and on NiCd from old systems but these amounts are considered to be negligible and are not considered in this methodology.

[^20]: Based on expert industry estimates in the Netherlands and current regulations.

[^21]: Considers the "Europe EOL market share" along with the assumption that 70% of batteries entering the second-life scheme will be reused, while 30% will be recycled.

[^22]: &#x20;European Commission - European Commission. (2022). Green Deal: EU agrees new law on more sustainable and circular batteries to support EU's energy transition and competitive industry. Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip\\_22\\_7588>.

[^23]: 100% - 51%: European Commission - European Commission. (2022). Green Deal: EU agrees new law on more sustainable and circular batteries to support EU's energy transition and competitive industry. Available at: <https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip\\_22\\_7588>.

[^24]: Assumed 50% landfilled and 50% incinerated due to lack of specific data