Introduction

The global demand for batteries is projected to increase fourteenfold by 2030, with the European Union expected to account for 17% of this demand. This is primarily fueled by the rise of electric mobility. In addition to climate change impacts, the production of batteries relies on critical raw materials (CRM) such as lithium, cobalt, antimony, rare earth elements, and natural graphite.

Most environmental impacts of batteries stem from two main stages: (a) the mining and processing of CRM and (b) their disposal at the end of life. Mining for CRMs raises significant environmental and human rights concerns, particularly as 82% of mining areas target materials for renewable energy, often in protected regions with high mine density. Additionally, improper battery disposal can contaminate soil and water, negatively impacting human health. In 2021, the EU's end-of-life battery collection rate was potentially below 50% for some types of less-regulated batteries.

Therefore, a major lever to reduce GHG emissions in this sector is to increase the lifetime of batteries, so that fewer batteries are produced. One method for increasing the battery's lifetime is the preparation for reuse or repurpose through regeneration and refurbishing, giving it a second life.

Battery second life involves restoring previously owned and used batteries to a functional state for continued use, thereby delaying their entry into waste streams. This process includes thorough testing, cleaning, repairs, and, when necessary, replacing components to ensure optimal performance. Extending the lifespan of batteries reduces the production of new batteries and reduces hazardous waste. Refurbishment and regeneration of batteries face barriers from high costs of repair, market fragmentation, and lack of consumer trust and acceptance.